Working and Non Working Mother Health Comparison

works and Non Working Mother Health comparingChen and Lin (1992). fooling heart demands, favorable foul, life gladness and wellness of functional(a) women and housewives. To see the underscore related to free-and-easy work all overload, the Daily brio Demand scale, Social Support Scale along with the Life gaiety Scale and the Symptomatic scales be utilise to advance comparisons amongst functional women and housewives. A vignette was conducted on 444 Taipei women revealing that daily life demands argon go through more(prenominal) by functional women than housewives save also they have more body forth in dealing with these demands. The results showed exalted stress aims to be reported by all women being curt more in on the job(p) women than in housewives. Higher life propitiation was reported by housewives and a exalteder degree of embossment was go through by working women.Mukhopadhyay et al (1993). Working status and concern levels of urban meliorat e women in Calcutta. A discover group from Calcutta resident working mothers was comp ared with a socioeconomically similar group of non-working mothers with respect to their perplexity level, careful by the Anxiety Scale Questionnaire. The relationships between disquiet score and eld of these women were analyse. Non working mothers showed racyer fear levels than their working counterparts with respect to the total anxiety score as well as components, although the difference of opinions were statistically non- significant.Doby Caplan (1995). Organizational latent hostility as Threat to Reputation Effects on Anxiety at Work and at Home. The results of this deal showed that high threat stressors were most potential to generate the anxiety experienced at home and for this the anxiety experienced at work was the key mediator.Rout et al (1997). Working and non-working mothers a comparative study. This study examines whether positive or neutral nonions on womens health are fo und in employed mothers by comparing working and non-working mothers. The results showed that working mothers reported less(prenominal) depression and had make better mental health than non-working mothers. Major stressor for working mothers was a lack of kindly life whereas not having enough sentence to do everything was reported as a arising of stress for working mothers. This study emphasizes on the benefits than be of multiple design involvement.Welch Booth (1997). Employment and health among marry women. consume of 500 urban marital women was used to evaluate the executable feat of outside-the-home employment on the mental as well as on physical health of married women. It was found that wives who had been employed for more than a class were healthier than wives not employed outside the home and wives who had worked less than one year. Whereas, housewives who had never worked outside the home were healthier, on the whole, than wives who had been employed at many ti me in the past. Poor marital relationships and having no preschool eld minorren seemed to increase the health advantage of long term employed wives over those in the housewife categories. Whereas the occupational status of wife and husband did not seem to transmute these health differences very much.Macewan Barling(1998). Inter role negate, family life and marital adjustment of employed mothers A short term, longitudinal study. This was make prefatorialally to address the devil issues, the effect of hide role infringe on marital adjustment and the moderating role of social body forth and hardiness being considered within the same analysis. To the inter role conflict, family support, constitution hardiness and marital adjustment of 51 employed mothers were assessed twice, three months apart. using hierarchical regression analyses, inter role conflict and family support exerted principal(prenominal) personal effects on marital adjustment at time 1. much importantly, a significant inters role conflict/family support interaction predicted change in marital adjustment over three months. High family support exerted a negative impact on marital adjustment when inter role conflict was high.Greenhaus Beutell (2000) Sources of Conflict between Work and Family Roles. This study examined the literary productions on the conflict between work and family roles and found out that work-family conflict exists when (a) time devoted to the requirements of one role makes it difficult to save requirements of another(prenominal) (b) get through from participation in one role makes it difficult to fulfill requirements of another and (c) specific behaviors required by one role make it difficult to fulfill the requirements of another.Birch Kamli (2000) Psychological stress, anxiety, depression, contemplate satisfaction, and disposition characteristics in preregistration house officers. This study got lifestyle questionnaires filled by the officers and metric the ego rated mental stress, state anxiety, job satisfaction, and character characteristics. It was seen that more of women suffered psychological stress, possible anxiety and possible depression.Nelson Quick (2000). Professional Women Are Distress and indisposition Inevitable? This study states that discrimination, stereotyping, the marriage/work interface, and social isolation are a source of stress for occupational women. The study also place a mentor, locus of control, self-confidence, and self-awareness as moderators for a stress-strain relationship.Paterniti et al (2002) Psychosocial factors at work, personality traits and depressive symptoms, Longitudinal results from the Gazel Study. The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between psychosocial factors at work and changes in depressive symptoms, taking into account personality traits. The results showed that irrespective of the personality traits high scores were seen in both the genders when the job demands w ere high with downhearted social support at work.Krantz et al (2003).Total workload, work stress and sensed symptoms in Swedish male and female white-collar employees. This research studies how the perceived symptoms of the white collar employees are associated with paid work, unpaid household tasks, child care, workchild care interactions and perceived work stress.Singapore care Reviews published an article (2003) on work family conflict of managers by survey approach. Work and family are cardinal important aspects of mans life. The idea examined the nature of the conflict and its effects on manager. An empirical survey was described, aimed at enhancing the understanding the conflict that the indivi triplex experienced. This showed that although most of the respondent would trade some learning for family time, job related issue, investing security, flexible working bit and high profile for value ahead of laser activity merely at a cost of behavior based, time based and strai n based. Twenty percent of respondents strongly agreed that they would trade their income for lesser instant at work to spend time with their families, thirty percent of the respondents were neutral, twoscore percent of the respondents agreed that their family will accept and adjust to any requisite arrangements required.Iqbal et al (2004). Anxiety in non-working women with reference to their education, family system and number of children. The objective lens of the study was to observe the presence of anxiety in working and non working women with reference to their education, family system and the number of their children setting. Purposive sampling technique used to select the sample of 50 working women and 50 non working women. Taylor distinct Anxiety Scale was administered on all women to assess on their anxiety level. Anxiety was observed more in non working women than in working women. A statistically significant association was found between anxiety in women and educati on. It was concluded that all non-working women should be supported morally and socially to spare some time for their entertainment and pleasurable activities outside homes to turn away the monotony of routine work.Hashmi et al (2006). Marital Adjustment, focus and depression Among Working and Non-Working Married Women. This study explores the relationship between marital adjustment stress and depression. Results also show that working married women have to face more problems in their married life as compared to non-working married women. in any case it was seen that exceedingly educated working and non-working married women can perform well in their married life and they are free from depression as compared to educated working and non-working married women.Melchior et al (2007) studied depression and anxiety in young, working women and men due to work stress. The results showed that participants exposed to high psychological job demands (excessive workload, extreme time pressu res) had a twofold find of study depression or generalized anxiety disorder compared to those with low job demands. The study stated that in previously healthy young workers, diagnosable depression and anxiety is precipitated by work stress.Aleem and Danish (2008). Marital satisfaction and Anxiety among single and dual career women at JamiaMilliaIslamia, New Delhi. The sample was selected by using purposive sampling 60 single and dual career women whose age group ranged from 25 to 45 years were studied using purposive method of sampling from Delhi. A Marital Satisfaction Scale was used to see the level of marital satisfaction among the two groups of women whereas Sinha Comprehensive Anxiety Scale was administered on the sample to examine their level of anxiety. It has been found that pressure and hassles of jobs not only affect marital life but also proved to be a major source of anxiety particularly among women and also marital satisfaction among working women only get disturbed due to their multiple role but the sentiment processes seemed to be disturbed that is manifested in the higher(prenominal) anxiety among women.Netterstom et al (2008) The recounting between Work-related Psychosocial Factors and the Development of Depression. The study found moderate evidence for a relation between development of depression and the psychological demands of the job. Also it was seen that social support at work decreased the risk for future depression.Weiclaw et al (2008) Psychosocial working conditions and the risk of depression and anxiety disorders in the Danish workforce. This study examined the relation between psychosocial working conditions and the risk of anxiety and working conditions. The results showed high risks of depression but decreased risk of anxiety disorders related to high emotional demands and working with people.Dew et al (2009) studied mental health effects of job loss in women. This study reviews literature on driven job loss and its effects on mental health among women. The detail and duration of lay-off was significantly associated with increased depressive symptoms, but not anxiety-related symptoms. Results showed that among women who were laid off, those who had light levels of support from their husband and those experiencing more financial difficulties reported higher levels of depression.Kaur et al (2011). relative study on working and non working married women effect of anxiety level on life satisfaction. The objective of the study was to go steady out whether the anxiety level has any significant impact on the life satisfaction of the working and non-working married women. Research investigated the effect of anxiety level on the life satisfaction among the working and non working married women. Satisfaction with Life Scale, and State-Trait Anxiety Test was administered on an personify sample of women participants (n=45) from both the groups. Two way ANOVA was used for info analysis. The result showed th at anxiety and life satisfaction are experienced otherwise by working and non-working women. The results of the study show that females those who are working and married, are low on anxiety with higher life satisfaction in comparison to the non-working married females. They perceived their life as challenging and secure. They find more comfortable with their life situations. On the other hand, the non working married females are less satisfied with their lives and their anxiety level is also higher than the anxiety level of working females.LilhareBorkar (2011). Comparative study on Stress and Anxiety in Working Women Performing Clerical and Shift minute of arc Duties. The study was designed to compare the stress, and anxiety level among different profession of working women. The study was an exploratory study. The Stress, Anxiety and Status block out were administered on 200 samples, 100 for clerical working women and 100 for shift second duty working women. The data was obtain ed and was analyzed using mean, standard leaving and t tests and compared. The findings of the research indicates that the working women performing Clerical and Shift minute of arc duties have significant difference on the measure of Stress,Status but do not have significant difference on the measure of anxiety.Virtanen et al (2011). Long working hours and symptoms of anxiety and depression a 5 year follow up of the Whitehall II study. This study examined how long working hours are associated with the onset of depression and anxiety symptoms in middle aged employees. The results showed two fold risk of developing depressive and anxiety symptoms in employees working for more than 55 hours a week as compared to those working 35-40 hours a week. Also sex-stratified analysis showed that women are more prone to depression and anxiety than men.Revati and Jogsan (2012). noetic Health and Depression among Working and Non-Working Women. Total number sample taken was 80 women. The researc h tool used for mental health was measured by Dr. D.J. Bhatt and Gita R. Geeda (1992). Whereas the tool for depression inventory was used which was made byBeck (1961).t test was applied to check the significance of mental health and depression in working and non working women to check the correlation method was used. And results revealed that significance difference in mental health and depression with respect to both working and non working women on mental health and depression.Adhikari (2012) conducted a study on Anxiety and Depression Comparative Study between Working and Non-Working Mothers. A significant number of mothers are working and playing the dual role of an employee and housekeeper to provide financial help to their families. These mothers experience anxiety and depression regarding the time they spend with their children and child care method. The results showed significant differences in degree of depression and anxiety of working mothers but no significant difference in that of non-working mothers.Bhadoria (2013). Level of Anxiety and Depression Among Working Women and Non Working Women of Gwalior. As todays women have a whole set of responsibilities and problems involving the professional and family life, this study tried to compare the levels of depression and anxiety among working and non working women. The results obtained showed significant levels of difference between working and non working women.Fall et al (2013). Comparative study of major depressive symptoms among pregnant women by employment status. This study compares the preponderance of major depressive symptoms between subgroups of pregnant women working women, women who had stopped working, housewives and students and to identify risk factors for major depressive symptoms during pregnancy. Prevalence of major depressive symptoms was the lowest for working women as compared to housewives. variable analyses showed that other factors such as low education, low social support outs ide of work, having experienced acute stressful events, lack of money for basic needs, experiencing marital strain, having a chronic health problem, country of birth, and smoking were significantly associated with major depressive symptomsBalaji et al (2014). A Comparative Study on Depression among Working and Non-Working Women in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. This study was done to assess the rouse of depression its risk factors among adult female working and non working population. The results indicated that working women suffer more from depression than non-working women. The risk factors for depression were identified as economic problems workplace problems, relationship problems and no personal life satisfaction.

Philosophical Arguments Of Plato And Aristotle

Philosophical Arguments Of Plato And AristotleThis paper tends to use known facts and dialogues as the starting point from which to draw inferences and solutions based on the philosophical dividing lines of Plato and Aristotle.THE caper OF CHANGEARISTOTLEThe basic nonions of Aristotles philosophy of nature push aside be understand from his analysis of change. When Aristotle undertook to excuse how it is that amours change, a fact appargonnt to each sensation, he had frontmost to confront the definemingly iron-clad logic of Parmenides. consort to Parmenides All change is guileless appearance authentic numberity is One, and this One, which only is, is unchanging. Parmenides had argued that there atomic number 18 only 2 alternatives for anything, beingnessness and non-being. No brand-new being keister mustinesser from non-being since vigour comes from nothing. Nor sight new being come from being since what has being, already is and does not begin to be being canno t come from being since it is already.The advance that Aristotle do over Parmenides consists in seeing that, although it is true that nothing can come from nothing, it is not entirely true that being cannot come from being. One must distinguish being-in-act from being-in- bureau. While it is true that from being-in-act, being-in-act cannot come since it would already be. The alternative from which being can come is not non-being, but being-in-potency. From being-in- potency there can come being-in-act.Potency, in this case, is defined as the capacity for growth and development. inadvertent CHANGEIn his analysis of change, Aristotle sight that every change implies duality. It implies a guinea pig in potency which, by the action of several(prenominal) agent, pases into act, i.e. receives about new perfection or actuality. Motion presupposes the acquisition of something and the corruption of something else. The subject of change is what corset the same through with(predicate) th e change. However, through the change, it acquires something new and loses what it previously had. Motion implies a passive principle and an active principle, intrinsic to the thing that changes. This he described as accidental change. therefrom, there ar triad principles necessary for change to conceive place. There must be something new that comes to be, something old that passes a vogue, and something that stays the same throughout. In the Aristotelian tradition, these principles receive the name trend, privation and matter.Form is what comes to bePrivation is what passes awayAnd matter is what stays the same throughout the change.In the case of a statue, the shape of the sculpture, Michelangelos David for instance, is the form that comes to be when a formless obturate of marble becomes a statue. The formlessness of the block is itself the privation of the statue shape, and the potency for the statue shape. The marble, first in block shape, later in David shape, is what stays the same throughout the change. The case of the approach to be of a statue is an instance of an accidental change what changes argon the accidents of the marble. What stays the same is the subject of the marble.SUBSTANCIAL CHANGEFor Aristotle, motion is the technical name for changes in accidents. There ar three kinds of motion for Aristotle a change in quality (which he c alls alteration), a change in quantity, size (called growth or diminution), and a change in place (called local motion). In all cases, motion, as such, is defined as the act of a being in potency up to now as it is in potency. Motion is the process that a capacity goes through in which it loses one accidental form or actuality and gains an some opposite.Aristotle discovered these principles of nature (matter, form and privation) by analyzing accidental changes. He found that they could too let despatch the more fundamental kinds of changes, changes that involve the passing away and coming to be of s ubstances.Example If one admits that sodium and centiliter are distinguishable substances (and they certainly appear distinguishable one is a white metal, the other a green gas), and that they are each different from salt (also on the face of it so), then one can see that the change from sodium and chlorine to Sodium chloride (salt) is a substantial change.PLATOPlato argued that both the material determinations discernd and the person perceiving them are constantly changing but, since knowledge must be touch only with unchangeable and universal objects, knowledge and perception are basically different.In his conjecture of forms Plato meant to solve the ethical and intellectual problems as good as that of change and permanence How can the population appear to be both enduring and changing? The world we perceive through the senses seems to be always changing. The world that we perceive through the mind, using our concepts, seems to be permanent and unchanging. Which is most real and why does it appear both ways? These are the arguments Plato sought to solve.The general structure of the solution Plato splits up subsistence into twain kingdoms the material realm and the transcendent realm of forms.Humans flip entree to the realm of forms through the mind, through reason, given Platos possible action of the subdivisions of the human soul. This gives them admittance to an unchanging world, invulnerable to the pains and changes of the material world. By detaching ourselves from the material world and our bodies and developing our ability to concern ourselves with the forms, we find a value which is not open to change or disintegration. This solves the first, ethical, problem.Splitting creative activity up into two realms also solves the problem of permanence and change. We perceive a different world, with different objects, through our mind than we do through the senses. It is the material world, perceived through the senses, that is changing. It is the realm of forms, perceived through the mind, that is permanent and immutable. It is this world that is more real the world of change is merely an imperfect image of this world.A form- This is an defraud property or quality. Take any property of an object pause it from that object and consider it by itself, and you are contemplating a form.Platos characterization of forms to explain permanence and changeThe forms are transcendent- This means that they do not exist in space and time. A material object, for instance a b guideetball, exists at a particular place at a particular time. A form, the roundness, does not exist at any place or time. thence a form such as roundness will never change it does not even exist in time. It is the same at all times or places in which it might be instantiated.The forms are also pure- This means that they are pure properties separated from all other properties. A material object, such as a basketball, has many properties roundness, ballness, orangeness, elasticity, and so forth These are all put together to make up this somebody basketball.But the form, Roundness, is just pure roundness, without any other properties mixed in.In merit of the fact that all objects in this world are copies of the forms, the forms are the bring ins of all that exists in this world. In general, whenever you want to explain why something is the way that it is, you point to some properties that the object has. That is, you explain what forms the object is a written matter of. The forms are causes in two closely cogitate waysThe forms are the causes of all our knowledge of all objects. The forms contribute all severalise and intelligibility to objects. Since we can only know something insofar as it has some order or form, the forms are the source of the intelligibility of all material objects.The forms are also the cause of the human race of all objects. Things are only said to exist insofar as they collect order or structure or form. H ence, the forms are the causes of the existence of all objects as well as of their intelligibility. Plato uses the sun simile to explain how the forms in general, and the form of the Good in particular, are causes in these two ways. fair as the sun gives light which allows us to see objects, the form of the Good provides order and intelligibility to allow us to know objects. Just as the sun provides the energy for the nourishment and growth of all alimentation things, so the form of the Good provides the order and structure which is the source of the existence of all things.REASON WHY WE THINK ARISTOTLES ARGUMENT IS MORE credibleIn place of Platos doctrine of Ideas with a separate and eternal existence of their own, Aristotle proposed a group of universals that represent the common properties of any group of real objects. The universals, unlike Platos Ideas, ache no existence outside of the objects they represent.Aristotle sought a general combined principal approach, unlike Pla to who insisted that the forms are the causes of the existence of all objects as well as of their intelligibility. Not implying that Plato was wrong but that Aristotles ascription of change to 3 principals seems to be logically containable i.e He did not separate Form from Privation nor from Matter. Form and matter, therefore, make up a substantial unity one cannot have form without matter, nor matter without some form. But, one can still distinguish these principles, and also understand that these principles are real features of the things that exhibit them.Aristotle thought that Platos theory of forms with its two separate realms failed to explain what it was meant to explain. That is, it failed to explain how there could be permanence and order in this world and how we could have objective knowledge of this world. By separating the realm of forms from the material realm, Plato do it im executable to explain how the realm of forms made objectivity and permanence possible in the material world. The objectivity and permanence of the realm of forms does not foster to explain the material world because the connection between the two worlds is so hard to understand. Aristotle and the Aristotelian philosophers used logic to criticize the theory. Gail fine went to an extremum to sayThe theory of form is an unnecessary proposal. There is no shoot to split the world up intotwo separate realms in order to explain objectivity and permanence in our experience.6Aristotle elaborated this general check into two more particular objections1. The obscurity of the notion imitationAccording to Plato, material objects participate in or imitate the forms. It is in virtue of this relation to the realm of forms that material objects are knowable and have order. Yet, Aristotle argues, it is to the highest degree impossible to explain what exactly this fraternity or imitation is. The properties that the forms have (eternal, unchanging, transcendent, etc. ) are all incompatibl e with material objects. How, for example, can a white object be said to participate in or copy the form of whiteness? Is the form of whiteness white itself? How can there be whiteness without any thingwhich is white? What can a white object and the form of whiteness be said to have in common? It seems that the metaphor of imitation or participation seems to arrest down in these cases because of the special properties that Plato ascribes to the forms. The only link between the realm of forms and the material world, then, breaks down. The forms cannot explain anything in the material world.2. The third man argumentThis argument was first given by Plato himself in his later dialogues. It is related to the first objection, but is a more technical way of acquiring at the main problem with the theory of forms. The resemblance between any two material objects is explained by Plato in terms of their joint participation in a common form. A red control and a red flower, for example, resemb le each other in virtue of being copies of the form of redness. Because they are copies of this form, they also resemble the form. But this resemblance between the red object and the form of redness must also be explained in terms of another form. What form does a red object and the form of redness both copy to account for their likeness? Whenever someone proposes another form that two similar things copy, we can always ask them to explain the similarity between the form and the objects. This will always admit another form. The notion of imitation or copying used in the theory of forms, then, runs into logical difficulties. The theory of forms really explains nothing about the similarity of objects another form is always needed beyond the one proposed. Thus to explain the similarity between a man and the form of man, one needs a third form of man, and this always requires another form. The history of the original similarity is never given it is only put off to the next level.Thi s reprehension paved the way for further criticism. As there was no logical connection between the transcendent forms and the material world, so many critics raised a question about the epistemological dimensions of this theory. Plato was of the conniption that real knowledge was knowledge of form and the ideal destiny of a man was to cave in the realm of forms. But he didnt mentioned how to reach that realm. As it was above this material world, so whether there was a way to reach that realm in ones life or only death could take a man in that ideal realm. The idea of forms was very annul and it wasnt clear enough to be accepted, un criticized.Plato didnt write much about his theory of forms and most of the written work was also not preserved. Pheodo was the first book to have this theory and later on in republic he explained it a bit. But this explanation was too little to make the theory clear. So the explanation was mostly rendered by the commentators of the theory. This becam e the major source of criticism on this theory.CONCLUSIONThe criticism of Aristotle and Aristotelian philosophers, on this theory, is mostly of instructive type. Had Plato written more or his books had been preserved, there might not have been that strong criticism on this theory. Even then the theory was potent enough to split the philosophy and philosophers in two parts. Though a group of philosophers dont agree with the content of the theory but even they accept that this theory provided human beings with s new way to think and perceive the universe.

Desmear and electroless plating

Desmear and electroless coat get holdIntroductionPrinted duty tour game carte is apply in the electronic manufacturing for mechanic e realy skillful and electric automobilealal support. It is electronic completelyy link ups the electric comp wiznts apply conductive traces, carved from tomentum c everyplaceed onto a non-conductive temporal. Printed spell mount argon normally let in bruiser and sloven mixture sensibles that ar coated to provide life-threatening mechanical and good conductivity with well-nigh early(a)(a) devices in the prevarication. Printed turns circuit card be apply in all electronic equipments such(prenominal)(prenominal) as computer and mobile phones and TV and communications equipment and air as well as in the control of gadgets in the factories, companies and other put ons of the innumerablet th mmnt thr i trng inr in th dir fr jint bnding nd jint bnding-rigid and light B du t rtin mrkt tr. Th inrd thnlgil dmnd frm th ltt hndhld dvi ntining Di idleral mr nd nw in high spirits TV rlutin rn wll th nwr mbil hn mn tht thr i urg in th rquirmnt fr jint bnding-rigid nl nd m ulti-jint bnding nl. Th nd t m rdu th nl ty nd t rdu th t f mnuftur, lwy h drivn th dvlmnt f nwr mthd f ring. (hlingr, 2002, 82)Thnilly th mtril invlvd in jint bnding / jint bnding-rigid PCB brd mnufturing gnrt lrg numbr f iu. n ky nrn i th lrg use vrin f mtril in n brd build-u wll th xti ntur f m f th mmnly ud mtril, water system consupmition nd th inhrnt iu thy ri. (hlingr, 2002, 82)PCB be inexpensive, and piece of ass be highly reliable. They require a good deal more name effort and higher initial personify than any wire-wrapped or point-to-point constructed galvanizing circuits, notwithstanding are much cheaper and faster for high-volume fruit. Much of the electronics industrys PCB design, building, and quality control ineluctably are set by standards (1).In 1885 before the appearance of electric circuit bill and point to point occupation, plate of carton was apply to connect the electric lots with wires and it was heavy and has big volume.Before crossed circuits point-to-point production was employ for primary sample or small production runs wire.Circuit boards were produced in the mid-1930, by Austrian inventor Paul Eisler. During World War II the United States produced them on a huge range for use in war radios. During this period the invention remained use in the military part, and until the conclusion of the war it became available for commercial use.Basically, each electronic grammatical constituent has wire, and the PCB has slews tire for each wire of each component and the PCB carry and connects all the electric components. Printed circuit boards befool blur tracks connecting the holes where the components are placed. They are designed in particular for each circuit and energise structure very easy. The lotion on the open air of a circuit board are usually blur, created bot h by putt single lines mechanically, or by coating the all board in copper and remove away excess. The method of assembly is called through-hole formation. In modern circuit board production, it uses soldered in place on the board with very little hassle., this surgical unconscious parade is usually be make by putting the cool solder mixture, and baking the entire board to dissolve the components in place. Soldering could be done automatically by passing the board over wave, of dissolve solder in machine(1). In previous period to the creation of go on-mount engine room was in the mid-1960s, all circuit boards apply wire to attach components to the board. But With the removing the wires from circuit boards, circuit boards guard become lighter and more efficient to produce.Multiwire visiting card was used during the 1980 and nineties in that technique copper wire pre-insulated with a polyimide resin is decided in the insulation cover by a wiring machine.Multiwire Board all ows through wiring so that the number of wires be in one layer really affixs, and consequently an high-density board evict be construct with a smaller number of layers than an ordinary printed wire boards. In addition, as Multiwire Board uses copper wire of a uniform diameter, it is superior in various electric characteristics such as providing stable characteristic impedance.Surface-mount technology appeared in the 1960s, and became famous in the early 1980s and became widely used by the mid 1990s. Components were mechanically redesigned to create small metal tabs or end caps that could be soldered without delay on to the PCB airfoil. Components became much smaller and component placement on both sides of the board became more common than with through-hole mounting, allowing much higher circuit densities. Surface mounting provides itself well to a high degree of automation, bring down labour costs and incrassating the conductivity and greatly increase production and quality rates. Surface mount devices (SMDs) keep be one-quarter to one-tenth of the coat and weight, and passive components enkindle be one-half to one-quarter of the cost of equivalent through-hole parts (3).The advantages of Surface mount technology areSmaller components. Smallest is presently 0.5 x 0.25 mm.Has higher number of components and more connections per component.Fewer holes should be cut through abrasive boards.Easy automated assembly.Small mistakes in component placement are corrected automatically (the pop out tension of the molten solder pulls the component into alignment with the solder pads).Components can be putted on both sides of the circuit board.Lower resistance at the connection.Good mechanical performance under shake and vibration conditions.SMT parts generally cost less than through-hole parts.Fewer unwanted RF signal effects in SMT parts when compared to leaded parts, yielding better predictability of component characteristics.Faster assembly. some place ment machines are capable of placing more than 50,000 components per hour.And there are some DisadvantagesThermal capacity of the commove generator results in slow reception whereby thermal profiles can be distorted.Usually some type of error, either human or machine-generated, and includes the following stepsMelt solder and component removalResidual solder removalPrinting of solder cattle ranch on PCB, direct component printing or dispensingPlacement and re feed in of refreshful component.Over the past few year, electronic products, and in particular those which fall indoors the category of Consumer Electronics have been significantly diluted in physical size and weight. Products such as cellular telephones, lap-top computers, pagers, camc secerns, have been reduced by as much as3/4 of their original introductory size and weight. The most significant contrisolelying factor to this reduction has been the inclusion of fine pitch, Surface riding horse (SM) components. The lar ger, thicker and heavier leaded Through-Hole (TH) packages.The Surface Mount (SM) was developed to give the node with increase component density and performance over the larger Dual-Inline-Package ( dump). The SM in any case provides the same high consistency. The Chip Scale (CSP) was developed to provide the customer with an additional increase in component performance and density over the SM . The CSP as well as provides the same high reliability as the DIP and SM packageComponents which are used in integrated circuits (chips), resistors, and capacitors can be soldered to the come forward of the board or more comm totally, attached by inserting their connecting pins or wires into holes drilled in the board. The increased component density and complexity required by the electronics industry demands increasing use of multilayer PCBs which may have three, four, or more intermediate layers of copper. Printed circuit boards include motherboards, expansion boards, and adaptors.epox y glue polymers are regularly used for electric circuit board manufacturing purposes, e specially for built up layers and micro-vias in modern printed circuit boards. The sticking in concert of the plated metal layers to this polymer aerofoil is primary importance for the consistency of the internal connection. chemical substance intervention of the polymer surface changes the chemical and physical nature of the polymer. These results in particular proposition groups of the polymer chain present on the surface and changes the roughness of the polymer layer. The effect of oxidizing agents on the polymer surface and the chemical properties of the surface. (4).Conducting layers are typically made of thin copper f oil. Isolating layers are usually laminated together with epoxy resin. The board is usually coated with a solder cover that is green in color. separate colors that are normally available are blue, and red (2).A number of additional technologies may be applied to circuit b oards for specialize usesCircuit boards, for example, are designed to be slightly flexible, allowing the circuit board to be placed in positions which would not otherwise be practical, or to be used in wire systems.Circuit boards for use in satellites and spacecraft are designed with severe copper cores to conduct heat away from the sensitive components and protect them in the extreme temperatures. almost circuit boards are designed with an internal conductive layer to carry source to various components without the need of extra traces.Publications have documented the metal surface of nanoparticales of Cu (Copper plating) or Au on flexible polyimide ( Epoxy) by electroplatingCopper plating is the emergence in which a coating of copper is puzzleed on the token to be plated by using an electric on-line(prenominal).Copper plating is a kind of electroplating procedure which uses a thin covering of metal to the surface of a component or a piece of equipment in order to improve i ts material properties and conductivity electric circuit board and eating away resistance and surface modification. Copper plating has an important use in another(prenominal) industries such as automotive, furniture, aerospace and ceramics. Important characteristics of the copper plating process involve the type of process, the copper plating solution and dispatchice staff consumption(5).Some important parameters moldiness be take during copper plating conformation of copper platingHow much necessary capacity of the copper plating systemHow much military group volition spending during the copper plating process.The electroless copper platting process involves of four basic operations cleaning, activation, acceleration, and repository.Useful features of copper platingSupply good basecoat for nickel and chromium.Increase the conductivity and reduce the cost of productionSupply excellent galvanic conductivity properties for applications such as electronics and telecommunications .Can be use as a inter in surface hardening procedures.Provide good lubrication in metal forming operations.Makes jewels look good.Although electroless copper has been successfully used for more than three decades, but move difficulties in removing the electroless copper from the waste stream and the reason for that is The process is unsteady requiring stabilizing additives to avoid copper fall.Environmentally is not good produces complex agents, such as EDTAThe large number of process ask high water consumption.The electroless copper method has considerable percentage of water volume used. water use is high due to the essential wash required between nearly all of the process steps. Copper is strand into the wastewater stream due to pull out from the cleaner conditioner, accelerator, and deposition baths process. Much of this copper is complexed with EDTA and ineluctably special waste treatment considerations and that is not good for environmental. This waste must be treated d uring the process of manufacturing or shipped mop up-site, which adds another cost to using electroless copper(6).Because the large amount of water and power consumption and the costs and environmental polluting in using electroplating there is another method for copper plating by using ultrasound which is more friendly to the environmental and needs low cost for production.Some paper refer to use ultrasonic in enterings plating, specially plating ash grey via immersion plating techniques as a final finish in circuit board processing.The useful thing in ultrasound is reducing excessive electric current power and that reduce the cost of production at the interface of the solder mask and copper circuit traces during the immersion silver plating process. Ultrasonics also used in cleaning printed circuit boards before plating.The another stage in printed circuit board manufacturing is oil production process for printed circuit board the purpose of drilling is to produce holes insid e the electric board for electronic components and all the electronic components be on these holes.Holes are drilled through the cover so that component can be inserted and then fixed firmly in place. There are generally 2 types of components that are attachable to the circuit board such as resistors, transistors, which are attached to the circuit board by putting each of the legs of components through a hole in the board. In a printed circuit board which uses surface mount technology, components are placed directly to the cover on the surface. Each set hole in the printed circuit board is planned to receive a exacting component. Many components must be placed into the printed circuit board in a special direction.The simplest printed circuit boards, wires must be printed on more than one surface of fiber frappe to let all the component interconnections. Each surface containing printed wires is called a layer or film. Simple printed circuit board which requires but twain layers, only one piece of fiberglass is required because wires can be printed on each sides. Some printed circuit board has several layers, single circuit boards are manufacture individually and then coated together to produce one multi layer circuit board. To connect wires on two or more layers small holes called vias are drilled through the wires and fiberglass board at the point where the wires on the different layers cross. The interior surface of these holes is coated with metal so that electric current can flow through the vias. Some more complex computer circuit boards have more than 20 layers.The printed circuit board has green colour because armorial bearing of thin sheets of green plastic on the both sides and without that the printed circuit board give appears in pale yellow colour. Called solder masks, these sheets cover all metal other than the component covers and holes.Electric circuit components are manufactured with covered metal pins which are used to fix them to the pr inted circuit board both mechanically and electrically so electric current can pass between them. The soldering process, which provides mechanical bond and a very good electrical connection, is used to connect the components to the printed circuit board. During soldering, component pins are inserted through the holes in the printed circuit board.A multilayer printed circuit board which can be interlayer connection with low resistance. The multilayer printed circuit board have a conductive design on one face and without connection hole on the other face, for applying the conductive design to outside a endorse substratum having a conductive design formed on a face opposed to the other face of first substrate and a conductive run across on the conductive design integrally. The first substrate and the second substrate are integrated by engaging the bump of the second substrate with the connection hole of the first substrate and by intervening a conductive cement between the bumps and the conductive descriptor exposed to outside from the connection holes(7).Some papers refer to use laser drilling to create holes during the manufacturing process for printed circuit board and that is also possible with controlled drilling by using computer program package or by pre-drilling the individual sheets of the printed circuit board before production, in order to produce holes which connect only some of the copper covers, kind of than let them to go through the all board. These holes are called blind vias when they connect an internal copper layer to an outer layer.Methods to Make Printed Circuits BoardThr r hndful of wy vilbl to produce PB. Thy yild rult of diffrnt quliti, whr th qulity m to b invrly balance wheell to th mount of m you mk (in mot ), nd mount of mony you pnd (in ll ). fed up(p) tlk bit bout h, nd thn ompr thm ll t th bottom of th pg.ny pro tht involv mking bord will hv numbr of tp in ommon. t high lvl and the steps includeProur br bord made from E poxy resin (otd with thin lyr of oppr on ithr on or both id) by using electroplating with copper. Mot mthod will u plin bord photolithogrphy rquir on otd with pil light-nitiv hmiland rp off ny burr long th bord dg (you wnt flt oppr urf nd ln it wll to rmov oxidtion nd fingr oil, follow up with dnturd lohol to rmov ny oil or gr, nd finih by buffing with vry ln towl. From thi point on, youll wnt to hndl your bord only by th dg to void gtting fingr oil on it.Digning the iruit board. Dpnding on how is the tul production for th bord, the dign will tk on of numbr of diffrnt form hnd-drwn t of lin on ppr, omputr-drwn digrm.Trnfr the dird oppr tr to th pltd id() on the bord th trnfrrd tr r ritnt to the thing liquid. Mot bord prodution mthod diffr only in how thy omplih thi tp. If the board needs gnrting dign vi omputr, that will needs to put om thought into whih wy the faces on the printd dign will be.th th bord which was trd, The thnt hmil rmov ll non-mkd oppr ftr it don and then g ive th bord good wh undr running wtr to rmov ll tr of th thnt. In mot , th thnt will ithr b Frri hlorid or mmonium Prulft (Frri hlorid i mor populr). Th r vilbl in both liquid (i.., prmixd) nd powdr form th powdr i gnrlly quit bit hpr, but rquir r whn mixing.lo not tht thing prod ftr with wrmr thnt, nd gittion. long with ving you tim, ft thing lo produ bttr dg qulity nd onitnt lin width, o ft i good in thi tp. Pr-ht Frri hlorid thnt in th mirowv for 40 ondut th bord to finl iz nd hp, nd drill hol in th bord for omponnt ld. Th nd to b vry mll hol (bout 0.8 mm).rfully term of enlistment off th mk (with fin tl wool undr running wtr), nd popult th bord (i.., oldr with the omponnt). And only the mask hould rub off th whn the soldering is rdy, th oppr tr oxidiz quikly within fw dy.ftr th bord i popultd (i.., ll th omponnt hv bn oldrd on), quik ot of pry polyurthn vrnih, thi kp th hiny oppr tr looking hiny, nd provid bit of inultion gint hort du to try wir bruhing up gint th bord.ltr l rEltrl r h bn ufully ud fr mr thn thr dd, limit n rtr xur t frmldhyd nd diffiulti in rmving th ltrl r frm th wt trm ud mnufturr t k other methods. Electroless copper is simply is using copper to coating as copper on non-metalic(Epoxy) surface using chemical reactions and without using electric current. . It was used to make non-metallic surface conductive or has misfortunate conductivity and that will provide electrical connection to the devices. This method was used in the beginning to plating glass surface with metallic silver. The plating for non-metallic surfaces were growing rabidly during plastic appearance. The plastic was used later on that as non-metallic surface (Epoxy). The plastic material in the beginning was engraveing chemically by using chromic back breaker sulfuric acid mixture.The disadvantageous and advantagous for electroless plating compaired with other electro plating (Coombs, 2007)U f frmldhyd rduing gnt.Th r i inhrntly untbl, rquiring tbilizing dditiv t vid r riittin.nvirnmntlly undirbl mlxing gnt, uh DT, r ud.Th lrg numbr f r nd rin tnk u high wtr numtin.Th ltrl r r nit f fur bi rtin lning, tivtin, lrtin, nd ditin (Coombs, 2007).ntnt thing rt. Th thing rt i dndnt n tmrtur nd hydrgnrxid nntrtin, nt th r nntrtin.iml wt trtmnt. N hltr r rnt in ulfuri-rxid mirthnt. high r ity f 3 t 4 un/glln.ffiint r rvry. r ulft rvry i uully 90-95%The electroless has steps which is includes below draw steps timbre 1 The Cleaner-. Alkaline permanganate to cleaning and to remove poop and condition holes.Step 2 Acid etching to remove copper surface contaminants.Step 3 Sulfuric Acid. Used to remove microetch.Step 4 Pre-dip. Used to stay chemical balance for the next treatment step.Step 5 Catalysis. Acid solution of palladium and tin to deposit a thin layer of surface activeStep 6 Electroless Copper. Alkaline copper reducing solution that deposits a thin copper deposit on the surfaces of the holes and other surfaces.Th ltrl r r nit f fur bi rtin lni ng, tivtin, lrtin, nd ditin (Coombs, 2007). n nti-trnih bth i mmn ftr ditin. Virtully ll h urh ri f rritry hmitri frm ingl vndr tht r ud th ingrdint fr th vrl r bth in th ltrl r r lin.lning. Th lning gmnt bgin with lnr-nditinr dignd t rmv rgni nd nditin (in thi wll) th hl brrl fr th ubqunt utk f tlyt, fllwd by mirth t. Th lnr-nditinr r tyilly rritry frmultin, nd mtly nit f mmn lklin lutin. mirth t n b fund n th ltrl lin, xid lin, ttrn lt lin nd with hmil lning if tht i th lning mthd ud. Thr hmitry ltrntiv r vilbl. ulfuri id-hydrgn rxid (niting f 5% ulfuri id nd 1% t 3% rxid) i mt mmn, fllwd by ulfuri id-tium (r dium) rulft (5% ulfuri, 8 t 16 un/ glln rulft) nd mmnium rulft. In h , th mirth bth i fllwd by ulfuri id di, whih rv t rmv ny rmining xidizr. but 40 mirinh f r r thd fr th mking hl ndutiv r. Bd n 3-4 un r rrying ity, rximtly 0.0183 glln f mirth r ud r qur ft f rdut run. Thi figur d nt inlud ny lutin tht my b drggd ut whn th nl r mvd t th nxt tnk. Th ulfuri-rxid ltrnti v h m ttrtiv wt trtmnt nd rfrmn ftur (Coombs 2007)Gold was also used for electroless platting and the gold was used as nanoparticles with silica to make the silica surface conductive and that is searchs on the chemical properties between the silica surface and the gold nanoparticles the connection between them depend on the charge for silver and the gold nanoparticles. In order to make the surface has conductivity and without using electroplating and that can be done in finding good organic linker to connect the gold with the silica and that will increase the reliability and increase the conductivity strong. The ultrasound shaft has a good effect and it is useful to improve the joining of two material and to increase the dispersive properties and ultrasound can be used to increase the attachment to many a(prenominal) kind of materials like silica and carbon glass and silver nanoparticles can be produced sonochemically and prepare it and deposited on the silica. The ultrasound has many of factors affecting on the distribution for gold nanoparticles and these factors include the frequency and the temperature and irradiation time and the power and study these factors and the aim from that is to determine optimal distribution condition for nanoparticles using ultrasound. The target copper electroplating this method is not only will increase the conductivity but will reduce the production cost . The electroplating for copper nanoparticles through hole metallisation is very important for the electrical industry such as printed circuit board (Coombs, 1988). n nti-trnih bth i mmn ftr ditin. Virtully ll h urh ri f rritry hmitri frm ingl vndr tht r ud th ingrdint fr th vrl r bth in th ltrl r r linThe metallization for PCB can be done by electroplating and electroless plating or electrolytic plating.Electroplating is using ionic metal which is supplied with electrons to make non-ionic coating on the materials a chemical solution is used in this process with electr ical current supplier and this method is common for copper plating for electric circuits boardsElectroless copper is using chemical material for plating and that occur without using electrical power gold, silver and gold is used in the electroless plating. This method was detect in 1944 and this method involve the coating with metallic conductive material to the non-metallic material by using chemical materials without using electric power and that will reduce production cost. Electroplating was used for non-metallic material such as plastics (Epoxy) which are used in the printed circuits boardsDmrDesmear is the process which is used to remove smeared epoxy-resin and this process involves three steps ( dissolvent swell, Permanganate and nutulaizer) and that is important to operate electrical conductivity for the layer after deposition process. Most electric Circuits boards material need removing to the drill smear and resin texturing prior to metallization. The consequence swell should be used before the permanganate and that increase the removing for drill traces and texturing.Solvent swell is used to prepare the material surface in etch step by using organic acid. Permanganate is used to remove the polymer from the surface and that will etch the surface. Neutulizer is using hydrogen peroxide with sulfuric acid to remove the smear left on the material surface after using permanganate and solvent swell.hmitry f Dmr ltingDesmear process includs chemical reaction which are oxidation reactions by using alkaline permanganate ( Potassium or sodium) and this step called solvent swell. Alkaline permanganate is highly oxidizing medium. In the oxidation process for permanganate the permanganate reduced to manganate and manganate and then react with water to produce insoluble manganese dioxide in the reaction below (Deckert, 1984)MnO4- + 2H2O + 3e- MnO2 + 4OH-In the neutralization reaction process includes removing the surface to ensure that all manganese dioxide are removed from the board surface and through holes. The manganese dioxide remnant from alkaline permanganate process can cause poor connection quality and poor hole wall adhesiveness problems. These problems can resolve by formation soluble manganese during the neutralization process.

An Android Application Development

An mechanical man covering phylogenyThis paper talks briefly about developing operations on the humanoid mobile chopine using the coffee Programming language. The overview let ins introduction to the humanoid platform features, architecture, APIs, lotion framework and the android SDK. A Hello gentlemans gentleman application walks you through the maturement process to understand the concepts of the android computer software stack and the incisions involved.In late 2007, a group of industry leading came together around the humanoid Platform to form the Open hand gear up Alliance (http//www. straight-from-the-shoulderhandsetalliance.com). Some of the alliances prominent members include Sprint Nextel T-Mobile Motorola Samsung Sony Ericsson Toshiba Vodafone Google Intel Texas Instruments. mechanical man was designed to serve the needs of mobile operators, handset manufacturers, and application developers 3. humanoid isA software stack for mobile devices that includes an o perating system (Linux Kernel reading 2.6), middleware and key applications. The android SDK provides the tools and APIs necessary to begin developing applications on the Android platform using the Java programming language 1.The haoma1 Android Architecture diagram gives a good overview of what constitutes the android platform. Android includes a set of C/C++ libraries (indicated green in Figure1) exercisingd by various components of the Android system. These capabilities are exposed to developers through the Android application framework.Android Platform FeaturesThe following is an explanation of the stool blocks of the platform as indicated in Figure1.Application framework Developers perplex full rise to power to the akin framework APIs used by the fondness applications ( think of Figure1) written in Java. An application give the sack publish its capabilities and any other application whitethorn and so make use of those capabilities. Underlying all applications is a set of services and systems, includingA rich and extensible set of Views that can be used to build an application, includinglists, grids, school school text boxes, scarcetons, and even an embeddable web browser issue Providers that enable applications to access selective information from other applications (such(prenominal) asContacts), or to dish out their own dataA Resource Manager, providing access to non- edict imaginativenesss such as localized strings,graphics, and layout filing cabinetsA Notification Manager that enables all applications to display employment alerts in the statusbarAn practise Manager that manages the lifecycle of applications and provides a popularnavigation backstackDalvik virtual machine optimized for mobile devices, executes files in the DalvikExecutable (.dex) format. The dx tool included in the SDK converts .class files into .dexfiles.Integrated browser based on the open source WebKit engineOptimized graphics powered by a employment 2D graphics li brary 3D graphics based onthe OpenGL ES 1.0 specification (hardware acceleration optional)SQLite for structured data storageMedia patronise for common audio, video, and still image formats (MPEG4, H.264,MP3, AAC, AMR, JPG, PNG, GIF)GSM Telephony (hardware dependent)Bluetooth, EDGE, 3G, and WiFi (hardware dependent)Camera, GPS, compass, and accelerometer (hardware dependent)Rich development environment including a device emulator, tools for debugging,memory and coifance profiling, and a plugin for the occultation IDEApplication FundamentalsAndroid applications are written in the Java programming language. The compiled Java code along with any data and resource files required by the application is bundled by the aapt tool into an Android package, an enrolment file marked by an .apk suffix. This file is the vehicle for distributing the application and instalment it on mobile devices its the file exploiters download to their devices. All the code in a single .apk file is considered to be one application. By default, every application hangs in its own Linux process, with a unequaled linux user id. distributively process has its own virtual machine (VM).Application ComponentsAndroid applications be of loosely coupled components, bound using a protrude intelligible that describes for each one component and how they interact. There are six components that provide the building blocks for your applications1) ActivitiesYour applications baffleation layer. Every screen in your application bequeath be anextension of the exertion class. Activities use Views to form graphical user interfaces thatdisplays teaching and respond to user actions. In terms of desktop development, anActivity is equivalent to a Form.2) ServicesServices are the invisible workers of your application. Service components run invisibly,updating your data sources and visible Activities and bring outing Notifi cations. Theyre usedto complete regular bear upon that needs to continue even when your applications Activitiesarent active or visible.3) Content Providers be a appointable data store. Content Providers are used to manage and share applicationdatabases. Content Providers are the p conjure upred way of sharing data across applicationboundaries. This means that you can confi gure your own Content Providers to consent accessfrom other applications and use Content Providers exposed by others to access their storeddata. Android devices include several(prenominal) native Content Providers that expose useable databaseslike contact information.4) IntentsThey are simple message-passing framework. Using Intents, you can penetrate messagessystem-wide or to a target Activity or Service, stating your intention to have an actionperformed. The system will then determine the target(s) that will perform any actions as discriminate.5) creationize ReceiversBy creating and registering a pass around Receiver, your application can listen for broadcastIntents that match spe cific filter criteria. Broadcast Receivers will automatically start yourapplication to respond to an inbound Intent, fashioning them ideal for event-drivenapplications.6) NotificationsThey are user notification framework. Notifi cations let you signal users without theftfocus or interrupting their current Activities. They are the preferred technique for geta users attention from within a Service or Broadcast Receiver. For example, when a devicereceives a text message or an incoming call, it alerts you by fl ashing lights, making sounds,displaying icons, or showing dialog messages. You can trigger these same events from yourown applications using Notifications. By decoupling the dependencies between applicationcomponents, you can share and interchange individual pieces, such as Content Providers orServices, with other applications both your own and those of third parties.The manifest fileThe AndroidManifest.xml file is where your global settings are made. If you are anASP.NET de veloper, you can think of AndroidManifest.xml as Web.config andGlobal.asax trilled into one. (If you are not an ASP.NET developer, this means thatAndroidManifest.xml is a place for storing settings.) AndroidManifest.xml will includesuch settings as application permissions, Activities, and intent filters. 4Please refer to decree 1 Manifest file micturateing Hello valet de chambre ApplicationWe will write the first android application, Hello World, using the overlook IDE.Make certain(a) that you have a suitable version of predominate(3.5 or 3.6 recommended) installed onyour computer. Download the windows .zip file for the SDK starter package. Unpack theSDK files into a directory cryd android-sdk- in a safe perspective onyour computer.Next, install the master(3.5 or 3.6) ADT plug-in for Android as followsStart dwarf, then select Help Install youthful Software. thumb Add, in the top-right corner.In the Add Repository dialog that push throughs, commemorate ADT Plugin for th e Name and thefollowing URL for the Location https//dl-ssl.google.com/android/eclipse/In Available Software dialog, select checkbox next to Developer Tools, cad NextIn the next window, youll see a list of the tools to be downloaded. Click Next. empathize and accept the license agreements, then click Finish.When the installation completes, correspondenceart Eclipse.Then, configure ADT by doing following steps assign Window Preferences to open the Preferences boardSelect Android from the left panel.For the SDK Location in the main panel, click Browse and locate your downloadedSDK directory.Click Apply, then OK.Now, to install a platform in EclipseIn the Android SDK and AVD Manager, carry Available Packages in the left panel.Click the repository site checkbox to display the components available for installation.Select at least one platform to install, and click Install Selected. If you arent sure whichplatform to install, use the latest version.Go on, and create an AVDIn Eclipse, choose Window Android SDK and AVD Manager.Select Virtual Devices in the left panel.Click New. (The Create New AVD dialog appears.)Type the name of the AVD, such as my_avd.Choose a target. The target is the platform (that is, the version of the Android SDK, suchas 2.1) you want to run on the emulator.You can ignore the rest of the fields for now.Click Create AVD.Create a New Android sufferAfter youve created an AVD, the next step is to start a new-fangled Android project in Eclipse.Please refer to Figure 12 New Android Project and similarly follow the steps below. accomplish in the project details with the following valuesProject name HelloAndroidApplication name Hello, AndroidPackage name com.example.helloandroid (or your own toffee-nosed namespace)Create Activity HelloAndroidClick Finish.Here is a description of each fieldProject Name The name of the directory that will contain the project files.Application Name This is the human-readable title for your application the name t hatwill appear on the Android device.Package Name This is the package namespace (following the same rules as for packagesin the Java programming language) that you want all your source code to reside under. Thisalso sets the package name under which the nitty-gritty Activity will be generated.Your package name must be unique across all packages installed on the Android system for this reason, its logical implicationant to use a standard domain-style package for your applications. The example preceding(prenominal) uses the com.example namespace, which is a namespace reserved for example documentation when you develop your own applications, you should use a namespace thats appropriate to your organization or entity.Create ActivityThis is the name for the class stub that will be generated by the plugin. This will be a subclass of Androids Activity class. An Activity is simply a class that can run and do work. It can create a UI if it chooses, but it doesnt need to. As the checkbox suggests, this is optional, but an Activity is almost always used as the basis for an application. second SDK Version This value specifies the minimum API Level required by your application. For more information, see Android API Levels.Other fields The checkbox for Use default location allows you to change the location on disk where the projects files will be generated and stored. Build Target is the platform target that your application will be compiled against (this should be selected automatically, based on your Min SDK Version). Notice that the Build Target youve selected uses the Android 1.1 platform. This means that your application will be compiled against the Android 1.1 platform library. If you recall, the AVD created above runs on the Android 1.5 platform. These dont have to match Android applications are forward-compatible, so an application built against the 1.1 platform library will run commonly on the 1.5 platform. The reverse is not true.Your Android project is now ready. It should be visible in the Package Explorer on the left. Open the HelloAndroid.java file, placed inside HelloAndroid src com.example.helloandroid). Please refer to Code2 HelloAndroid. Notice that the class is based on the Activity class. An Activity is a single application entity that is used to perform actions. An application may have many separate activities, but the user interacts with them one at a time. The onCreate() method will be called by the Android system when your Activity starts it is where you should perform all initialization and UI setup. An action mechanism is not required to have a user interface, but normally will. Now lets modify some codeConstruct the UIPlease refer to Code 3 Construct UIAn Android user interface is undisturbed of hierarchies of objects called Views. A View is a drawable object used as an agent in your UI layout, such as a button, image, or (in this case) a text label. Each of these objects is a subclass of the View class and the subclass that handles text is TextView. In this change, you create a TextView with the class constructor, which accepts an Android Context instance as its parameter. A Context is a handle to the system it provides services like end resources, obtaining access to databases and preferences, and so on. The Activity class inherits from Context, and because your HelloAndroid class is a subclass of Activity, it is also a Context. So, you can pass this as your Context reference to the TextView.Next, you trammel the text content with setText(). Finally, you pass the TextView to setContentView() in order to display it as the content for the Activity UI. If your Activity doesnt call this method, then no UI is present and the system will display a blank screen.There it is Hello, World in Android The next step, of course, is to see it running.Run the ApplicationThe Eclipse plugin makes it easy to run your applicationsSelect Run Run.Select Android Application.The Eclipse plugin automaticall y creates a new run configuration for your project and then launches the Android Emulator. Depending on your environment, the Android emulator might take several minutes to boot fully, so please be patient. When the emulator is booted, the Eclipse plugin installs your application and launches the default Activity. You should now see something like this Please refer to Figure 4 Hello Android. The Hello, Android you see in the colorise bar is actually the application title. The Eclipse plugin creates this automatically (the string is delimit in the res/values/strings.xml file and referenced by your AndroidManifest.xml file). The text below the title is the actual text that you have created in the TextView object. finaleThat concludes the basic Hello World tutorial. Refer to http//developer.android.com/index.html for more information. To do that, android offers a number of APIs for developing your applications. The following list of core APIs that provide an insight into whats availa ble all Android devices will offer support for at least these Java APIs2android.util The core improvement package contains low-level classes like specialized containers,string formatters, and XML parsing utilities.com.google.android.maps A high-altitude API that provides access to native map ascertainsthat you can use within your application. Includes the MapView master as well as theoverlay and MapController classes used to annotate and control your embedded maps.android.text The text processing tools for displaying and parsing text.android.database low-level classes required for working with databases.FiguresFigure 1 Android Architecture DiagramFigure2 New Android ProjectFigure3 New Android ProjectFigure 4 Hello AndroidCode 1 Manifest Fileandroidicon=drawable/small_pic.pngandroidlabel=string/freneticLabel. . . . . .Code 2 HelloAndroidpackage com.example.helloandroid minute android.app.Activityimport android.os.Bundlepublic class HelloAndroid extends Activity /** Called when t he activity is first created. */ repeal public void onCreate(Bundle savedInstanceState) super.onCreate(savedInstanceState) setContentView(R.layout.main) Code 3 Construct UIpackage com.example.helloandroidimport android.app.Activityimport android.os.Bundleimport android.widget.TextViewpublic class HelloAndroid extends Activity /** Called when the activity is first created. */ Override public void onCreate(Bundle savedInstanceState) super.onCreate(savedInstanceState) TextView tv = new TextView(this) tv.setText(Hello, Android) setContentView(tv)

Workplace Bullying: Literature Review

pass on for push through hector Literature handicap exposeWorkplace blustering(a)Table of ContentsIntroductionAim of This recordBackground for this StudyThe Research Problem1. Defining the make of intimidate2. Sensitivity of the subject3. Categories of intimidate doingsMethodologyLiterature watchDoes Workplace Violence Encompass Physical as nearly as Emotional Violence?How Bullied Persons Are SeenWhat is a Bully Like?What Does b altogetheryrag Do to An memorial tablet? strong-arm and Workplace ViolenceFundamental Features and Categories of BullyingFeatures of bulliesTypes of BullyingBullying at SchoolsBullying at WorkplacesCyberspace set up of deterrenceAnalysisNegative BehaviorsNature of BullyingCauses of BullyingWorkplace EnvironmentsPersonality of an Individual in Relation to his or her WorkplaceBullying Negates Productivity at the WorkplaceCan A Manager Be A Bully?Dictatorial Management Can non Achieve the Best Results wad ResultsConclusionReferencesAppendixPeop le in this modern world brook gener eachy be love much aw atomic number 18 of their surroundings and the ways that they should be treated. They ar more often than non more aw ar of their self-esteem and their value in society than they were in the medieval. One reason for this whitethorn be because in recent decades in that location has been more emphasis on things manage merciful rights and equality of alone privates. With token emphasis on functional conditions, pack are generally aware of how they should be treated and what sorts of conditions they should be allowed to snip in. From a general get a linepoint, virtuoso whitethorn think that this only refers to run lowing conditions such(prenominal) as the forcible milieu that should not receive whatever hazards in it. The reason for this horizon is due to the fact that in that respect ease up been several(prenominal) cases in the past in which employees were given hazardous conditions to feat under. In contrast to this, people are more aware of these past hassles, and probably would not hesitate to object to any hazards in employments today.In contrast to having maintain the awareness that people might halt needing turnplaces hazards, on that point are several individuals who may not realize that they are quiet facing peeplace enigmas and end up not objecting to problems around them. Also, rough individuals who are aware may not be able to fend for these forces, and thus, are compelled to field under these conditions. round working conditions may not necessarily be hazardous in the conventional sense, but they may be considered as inappropriate for employees if they obtain filter out because of them. One particular typesetters case of employment hazard is known as ballyrag, and may be carried out by superiors as soundly as colleagues1. Statistics fall more than 2 one million million people at work ghost bullied (Andrea Adams Trust 2005). One in four peopl e say that they come been bullied at least once in the past 5 years. With these statistics, it is notwithstanding said that workplace intimidate results in a going of 18.9 million working years and 4 billion2. This is because those macrocosm bullied tend to be bump off from work more a good deal.In addition to loss experienced in industries in terms of days and revenue, t present is evidence of high levels of focusing in individuals organism bullied. Yet, it is not easy to evaluate workplace determent, and this is because of the impediment in precisely defining what workplace intimidation is. in that location are several definitions of hectoring, but none are agreed on. However, both(prenominal)(prenominal) of these are interesting and do help to gain signifi arouset discernment to the problem. According to piss Einarsen (1999), it is suggested that rowdying occurs when some(a)one at work is systematically subjected to aggressive demeanour from one or more coll eagues or superiors all all over a long period of time, in a function where the charges finds it severe to defend himself or herself or to equivocation the posture3According to the higher up definition, blustering(a) might be described as a passage through which individuals feel intimidated by someone who uses their strength and cause to hurt and frighten them. The presence of this person makes them feel vulnerable and uneasy to the extent that it stresses or de-motivates people at their work. In other words, it is a systematic approach through which an individual corners other, and thither is no escape unless one escapes the system.Recent look into in the UK conducted in the frame of reference of surveys and UK cases convey highlighted the splendor of exposing hector. This is because on that point is probative evidence to prove that it causes foreboding that leads people to fulfil physical and mental distress. These are believed to be right away results of he ctor in the workplace.It is estimated that in the UK, six million working days are lost annually due to stress ca utilize by deterrence, contemplate insecurity, shift work and long hours4.According to Cary Cooper (2000), people that account being bullied had the poorest health, the concluding work motivation, the highest absenteeism figures as well as the lowest productivity compared with those who were not bullied. In addition to this, based on look in Sweden, Heinz Leyman (1993,1996) firstly introduced the plan of mobbing ( blustering(a)) as a relentless ricochet of harassment in organisations. Theoretically, it could be asserted that ballyraging is an extreme type of social stressor at work that whole caboodle in a system. It may be then said that boss arounding is a long steadfast harassment, systematically aimed at a nates person.5 Having acknowledged the tremendous loss that intimidateing causes an industry, the UK Government believes that employees should have the rights to work in an environment without being bullied and harassed. In mark to combat browbeat in the workplace, the UK legal framework gives employees the rights, which protect them from any form of unreasonable treatment within the work place.Keeping the preceding(prenominal) statistics in mind, this project is concerned with the effects of toughing in workplaces on individuals. It testament in addition explore the reputation and causes of bullying at work.Most studies regard bullying as a corporate phenomenon, in spite of the fact that diametrical kinds of behaviours are involved.6 It may be asserted here that these behaviours make individuals feel intimidated and occur in different situations and cross gender, age, and race of individuals. The intimidation and anxiety caused by bullying creates stress and stress related illnesses.The aims of the proposed study are outlined belowWhat type of disallow behaviours that makes individuals feel bullied at their workplace? Explore the nature and causes of workplace bullying.Examine the effects of bullying on individuals.According to Andrea Adams in Bullying at work published in 1992 bullying at work is like a malignant cancer and the disturbing manifestations of full- startn bullying (Adams et al 2000, p.9) Andrea Adams, broadcaster and journalist, was the first person to recognise the import of workplace bullying, and her book Bullying at Work, remains a landmark in this field. Adams suggests that bullying occurs when professional abrasiveness becomes tainted with an factor of personalized vindictiveness (Adams et al 2000, p32). Bullying is a sustained form of psychological abuse and much radiates from a senior person taking what they feel is strong management. However, bullying may not always come from a senior person in the workplace. It is thought that individuals may be singled out by a number of colleagues for motley reasons.Debrah Lee (1998), who has been researching workplace bullying, argues the emergence of workplace bullying as being a problem or whether it should be considered to be an interpretation for an existing problem. She demonstrates that workplace bullying is an interpretation for a range of unfair work habituates. She identifies workplace bullying asPersistent, offensive, abusive, intimidating, venomed or insulting behaviours, abuse of antecedent or unfair penal sanctions which makes the recipient feel upset, threatened or hurt or vulnerable, which undermines their self confidence and which may cause them to suffer stresstaking credits for another persons idea, ignoring or excluding an individual by talk of the town only to a third party to isolate another, spreading malicious rumours, persistent criticisms7. at that placefore, it could be said that bullying apprehendes various kinds of negative ports. in that location have been a range of debates around the nature and causes of workplace bullying. Stale Einarsen (1999) suggests that bullyin g may be used in a communicate manner describing good natured horseplay or refer to minor events of aggressive behaviour that tend to be easily accepted and tolerated.In this scientific study, the concept refers to rather specific phenomenon where hostile or aggressive behaviour, whether physical or non-physical, are factors of stigmatisation and dupeisation of the recipient.8 However, Dieter Zapf (1999) categorises five different types of bullying behaviour. They areWork related bullying which may embroil changing your work tasks or making them difficult to performsocial isolationpersonal rapes on your private life by guy, insulting remarks, gossip or the likeverbal threats of such personnelPhysical violence or threats of such violence.(Adopted for use quoted in Zapf 1999 source Stale Einarsen 1999)Zapf (1999) argues theoretically that bullying is an extreme type of social stressor at work. It is a long invariable escalating practice aimed at a come out person. There is ina dequate research and it is difficult to prove the causes and effect of bullying. It emerges that multiple causes of bullying have to be taken into consideration, and that bullying can be caused for various reasons.1. Defining the effects of bullyingOne of the main problems of finding out the effects of bullying is stress. Estimates of the cost of stress and stress related illnesses range from 5 billion (TUC) to 7 billion (IPD) to 12 billion (CBI) each year. direction can be caused from a variety of reasons. (www.bullyonline.co.uk) (11/11/05) Christine Hudson (2001) defines stress asliterally a pressure of force exerted on an object. The activated democracy that occurs when an individual believes that they do not have the resources to deal with a situation or series of events (Hodson 2001, p 144).Beehr Franz (1987) suggest that stress has greensly been defined in three ways as an environmental stimulus often described as a force applied to the individual, as an individuals psyc hological or physical response to such an environmental force (Warr 2002, ch 8 p 204). If the cause of stress could actually be pinpointed to an individuals workplace, it would be convenient to study how s/he may have been bullied.2. Sensitivity of the subjectBullying is a sensible topic and people may be in denial or embarrassed because of the fact that they are being bullied. Not everyone will live with that they have a problem and some may not be aware that they are being bullied. Hence, it is a very sensitive area. Precautions must be taken when research is carried out.3. Categories of bullying behaviourDifferent theorists have different perceptions of categories of bullying behaviours. Also, individuals have different perceptions of defining what negative behaviour is. The literature review and abbreviation will help to reveal what authors have to say near different categories of bullying.The method selected for this research paper consists of a quantitative as well as a q ualitative approach. some(prenominal) approaches will help to collect as much data as possible. Qualitative data will be obtained though pertinent journals, books, studies, magazines and newspapers, all presented in a literature review that will be analysed. decimal data will be obtained through a survey consisting of 50 participants. A range of questions will be presented to them, and the accumulative answers to these questions will be analysed. In addition to this, the quantitative data will be discussed with regard to the literature review as well. This quantitative method has been selected because a questionnaire will provide the hazard to seek answers to questions in a larger quantity.AdvantagesQuestions are designed so that answers from the individuals interviews can be added together to produce results, which nurse to the whole experiment.The research is based on interviews with a representative sample of respondents.The questions are designed to be unbiasedLarge survey c an often be broken down thoughts lend themselves to emerging replication. injuryData becomes the main focus of the research issues.The data provide snapshots of points in time rather than a focus on the underlying make processes and changes.The researcher is often not in a position to check first hand the understandings of the respondents to the questions asked. Issues of truthfulness and accuracy are thereby raised.The survey relies on breadth rather than depth for its validity. This is crucial issue for lowly researchers.9Making use of primary data (Surveys, focus group interviews) and standby data (journals, databases, case studies, books, newspapers etc.), the clients aim is to find out what types of negative behaviours make people feel bullied at the workplace. This data will in any case help to reveal the nature and causes of workplace bullying.Analyzing the survey data against the reviewed literature and the analysis will prove interesting. It is through this comparison that one will be able to sort out whether the literature reviewed has any quasi(prenominal)ities shared with the results of the survey. It is expected that there would be similarities, and it is interesting to observe how significant these similarities are.Bullying at a workplace can very easily be likened to bullying in enlightens. The difference between the two types of bullying is that each of them takes place in different age brackets. Bullying at a workplace is similar to bullying at inculcate because it takes place within an institution that works as an arena within which bullying can be sustained. It is often thought that bullies at schools tend to do the same thing at workplaces when they grow up. This is perhaps because their behaviors may have been ignored by superiors and cheered on by classmates. As a result, the will to dominate continues as they grow up.Some bullies target their dupes because they feel the need to control a situation or an environment while others have a natural crusade to dominate without any specific reason. Whether bullying takes place at the school level or in a workplace, it has often been noted that unsteady individuals exemplify these behaviors.Does Workplace Violence Encompass Physical as well as Emotional Violence?According to the International Labour Organization (ILO) (1999), one of the severest problems being faced at workplaces is physical as well as emotional violence. The ILO defines workplace violence as any hap in which a person is abused, threatened or assaulted in destiny relating to their work. These behaviors would originate from customers, co-workers at any level of the fundamental law. This definition would include all forms or harassment, bullying, intimidation, physical threats/assaults, robbery and other intrusive behaviors.10 This definition is as well said to encompass bullying.According to CUPEs National Health and Safety Survey of Aggression Against Staff (1994) a similar definition to the previous one is observed, verbal onset and harassment in its definition of violence is each incident in which an employee is abused, threatened or assaulted during the course of his/her employment. This includes the application of force, threats with or without weapons, severe verbal abuse and persistent sexual and racial harassment.11Definitions such as this one may also encompass bullying. In found to establish a connection between these definitions of physical and emotional violence, and bullying, the hobby case is important.An employee of OC Transpo in Ottawa (April 6 1999) shot 4 employees dead, later which he shot himself. It was said that the employee had suffered from workplace harassment. The definition of workplace violence that had to be included in the coroners examination had to include definitions of physical violence as well as psychological violence12. mental violence or emotional violence includes acts such as bullying, mobbing, teasing, ridicule or any word o r deed that could psychologically impairment or single out an individual person in the workplace.From the cellular inclusion of emotional violence in the definition of workplace violence, it can be asserted that definition is very broad. Such a definition has helped to encompass several behaviors that are objectionable and are recognized as toxic to employees (Einarsen, 2002, 25-30).How Bullied Persons Are SeenUsually, those who are bullied are seen as weak individuals or individuals that are different and singled-out. As opposed to the way that bullied person might be seen generally, s/he might well be a adequate to(p) person, and one that handles his or her work independently. Quite often, such individuals are also well liked by their co-workers. However, bullies may pick on such individuals who may have a non-confrontative interpersonal style. Bullies may see the target as a threat, and set out to cut the target down. A bully of this kind may be a superior or even a co-worker. A co-worker may bully another worker because the target is considered one that is capable of excelling in his or her duties. A superior on the other hand may want to bully an employee in order to keep the targets personality in check. This may be done in order to create or reinforce an impression of the superior being in control. Some superiors do take pleasure in bullying their employees in order to, in typical terms, render them who is the boss.What is a Bully Like?Bullies are normally insecure individuals, lacking social skills. The have little compassion for individuals in general, but tend to be harsh on individuals whom they decide to target. Bullies generally try to turn their insecurity outwards by targeting others. They take pleasure in knowing that they can throw their weight around. They use their positions to attack fully capable individuals around them by subjecting them to undue criticism. A bully may also tend to humiliate, ignore and isolate a target in front of o thers13.If the bully is in a senior position, s/he may make things difficult for the target or victim to work through. This would include setting up tasks that cannot realistically be achieved14. A bully may also take away important tasks from a target and replace them with demeaning ones. No matter what a bully does to intimidate a target, the basic idea is to control situations and environments.What Does Bullying Do to An Organization?Bullied employees tend to waste anywhere between 10 to 52 % of their work time. Many of them spend time preparing themselves against bullies, searching for support, thinking over the situation, and suffering stress and demotivation15. Many of them also do not show up for work regularly due to stress and stress-related illnesses caused.A work environment in which employees are bullied is poisoned with lack of morale, anger, fear, depression, and related feelings. All this results in an employer suffering loss of efficiency, absenteeism, high turnover of staff, and lawsuits16.Not only does an employer suffer because of bullying in a workplace, but bullying has an impact on the targets family and friends as well. The daily stress that an individual suffers is carried to relatives and friends. A targets marriage is also likely to suffer as well with long-term stress. Friendships too come under strain because a target may become possessive (Badzmierowski Dufresne, 2005).The damages caused by bullying also impact the healthcare system. This is because those who suffer stress through bullying tend to receive medication and counseling for coping with the problem, and these could last for significant periods.Bullying and Workplace ViolenceWorkplace violence is a practice that might be physical or emotional. This means that the tactical manoeuvre used in the process may be physical or emotional. Bullying is one of the tactics considered under workplace violence. Encompassing the emotional tactics used in workplace violence are bullyin g, incivility, disrespect, psychological abuse, and emotional harassment. All these tactics may also be referred to as psycho terror. Whichever way one chooses to define and describe these various aspects of workplace violence, they all have the same impact. This is to say that they all result in work time being lost, demotivated employees, medical claims, legal fees, and ultimately, company decline. Quite obviously, there are tremendous losses experienced in terms of both financial loss and in quality of life (Badzmierowski Dufresne, 2005).Focusing more on bullying as a tactic of emotional workplace violence, it can be asserted that bullying is any form of negative behavior that shows disregard for other workers. It might be asserted here that along with there being several definitions for bullying presented by various scholars, there are also several behaviors that may coincide or overlap bullying behaviors. However, it can also be asserted that bullying and other overlapping pra ctices are emotional workplace violence. Bullying is thought to consist of some of the following negative behaviorsHarassmentIncivility peskyGossipingPurposely withholding business informationOverruling decisions without a principleSabotaging team effortsDemeaning othersVerbal intimidation (Badzmierowski Dufresne, 2005)In addition to the above types of bullying, there are several more that may be included.The different types of bullying that can occur do so in an organization that tolerates incivility. Though organizations may be aware of the damages that bullying does to an organization, responses to the problem are insufficient. Many managers ignore incivility because they either do not want to get involved or they simply believe that it is too much of a waste of time getting involved. Managers sometimes like to keep their slates as clean as possible. So they would rather invalidate getting themselves into any interpersonal conflict.In addition to managers not absentminded to get into interpersonal conflicts, many of them may not even con of any problems in the workplace. This could be for various reasons. Perhaps their co-ordination is insufficient and the opportunity for employees to bring up these kinds of problems does not arise. Some employees might feel that they would be going way beyond expected territory if they were to take complaints forth (Badzmierowski Dufresne, 2005).Another reason why managers may not hear just about bullying at the workplace is because employees are afraid to bring these issues up even if the opportunities do arise. Employees may be afraid to bring bullying matters up because there are organizations that would regard these complaints as personal disputes and they may not be seen as the concern of the management. It might be asserted here that this could occur because managers know that employees would not take these matters too uttermost even if they were to get serious. However, targeted employees have been known to bring lawsuits against companies for bullying. In the UK, there is legal support for employees that feel bullied, as the UK suffers a loss of several working days and revenue due to workplace bullying. The matter is a serious one, and so is the legal protection of targeted employees in the UK.Though there is legal protection available for targeted employees, there are organizations that permit or even reward blatant confrontation among employees. This is done in the remark of competition within organizations. However, there are lines that need to be cadaverous and if rude language and negative behaviors are overlooked, an organization can suffer intensely.Research shows that when targets believe that someone at work has treated them disrespectfully, half(prenominal) will lose work time worrying about future interactions with the instigator, and half will contemplate changing jobs to avoid a recurrence. poop of research respondents who feel that they have been treated uncivilly will purposely cut back their work efforts. A few will abstract from their instigators or their organizations. Some will sabotage equipment. Most will tell friends, family and colleagues about how badly they have been treatedin the worst case, some targets of incivility will exit (Pearson and Porath 2005).Fundamental Features and Categories of BullyingAccording to common terms, bullying is known as a type of harassment, carried out by one child over another who is seen as weaker. With this common view of bullying in mind, there are three common features in this form of behaviorIt is aggressive and negative, bothThe behavior is sustainedThere is in inequality in power of the bully and the target, with the bully having more power (Einarsen, 2002, 25-30)There are also two main categories into which bullying falls. These areDirect and substantiative bullying, which may also be called aggressionDirect bullying is common among males. Indirect bullying is common among females and children . Indirect bullying commonly results in the target becoming socially isolated. There are several ways through which this may be achieved. Some of the ways include gossip, ignoring the target in public, treating those who mix with the target in the same manner, and finding fault with the targets style of fertilisation and various other social belonging that the target may have, such as his or her religion, race, disability, etc.Bullying can take place in almost any type of set up. It is known to commonly take place in schools, colleges, universities, workplaces, in neighborhoods, and even between countries. No matter where bullying takes place, it must be noted that the element of power has an important role to play, and the power structure seems to be of great importance (Einarsen, 2002, 25-30). To observers of a relationship in which bullying takes place, the power a bully has is dependant on the perception a target has of the bully. The target usually is afraid to defend him or herself effectively. In many cases, a target has reason to be intimidated. S/he may fear the bully may carry out threatened actions such as physical/sexual violence, or loss of livelihood.Features of bulliesThere are few notable characteristics of bullying, particularly in male bullies. These include the need for a bully to feel in control and be powerful, sadism, which is a situation where a bully gets satisfaction at watching another person suffer, complete lack of consideration for others, and a particular pattern according to which they work in order to blame the target (Einarsen, 2002, 25-30).Quite commonly, an individuals upbringing is blamed for the way that a bully behaves. It is thought that a bully may have been brought up in an abusive environment where s/he might have been exposed to physical forms of penalisation at home, little or no parental concern, and an environment in which violence has been used as a way of sorting out problems.Other research reveals that agg ressiveness and forceful behaviors, perceiving others behaviors as aggressive, a drive to preserve ones image, and demonstration of neurotic actions are also observed17.Types of BullyingBullying, whether a male or a female carries it out, may be considered to be an obsessive and compulsive behavior. This behavior has repeated actions or verbal insults that are used in order to have power over a target (Einarsen, 2002, 25-30). There is also a mixture of intimidation and humiliation used against targets. Some examples of bullying techniques are given belowName-calling often using the targets or victims names commonly, the target is accused of being useless in all s/he doesGossiping about the targetStealing items that belong to the victimUnjustly demoting a victim single-valued function of threats to get a victim to do what a bully wantsCyberbullying this includes making use of various information technologies to bully a victimPhysically assaulting a person or his or her property work Framing a victim before an authority figureUse of insulting remarks against a victims family,about ones home,personal appearance,sexual orientation,religion,race,income level,or nationalityIgnoring or Isolating a victimInterfering with a victims personal belongings, and disconfirming them or using them to mock a victimDominating a victim by staringInsulting graffiti18When bullying occurs in school